The Development of Public Relations
1. Historical
Origins of Public Relations
Although the roots of
public relations extend as far back as ancient Greece, modern-day public
relations in the United States emerged from revolutionary politics. A group of
revolutionaries mounted a systematic public relations campaign to shift public
opinion in favour of independence from England and King George III. Through the
strategic use of words, symbols, and printed materials, they mounted a
successful activist campaign that ultimately led to the Revolutionary War.
1.1
Thomas Paine and Common Sense (1776)
Thomas Paine's Common
Sense, published in 1776, was one of the earliest and most consequential acts
of deliberate public persuasion in American history. The pamphlet gave rise to
the sentiment that England's governance under King George III was fundamentally
unjust. Its rhetorical arguments directly influenced the subsequent Declaration
of Independence and widespread acts of public protest. Historians have called
it the most influential tract of the American Revolution.
Key message tactics
employed during this period included:
•
Memorable slogans such as 'Don't Tread on Me' to
crystallise public sentiment
•
Colonial newspapers as vehicles for mass persuasion
•
Printed pamphlets and public declarations to frame
political narratives
1.2
The Federalist Papers
The 85 Federalist Papers,
authored by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, represent another
landmark in the early development of public relations. Scholars Grunig and Hunt
(1984) assessed these essays as exemplary forms of effective public relations —
structured, evidence-based communication aimed at winning public support for
the ratification of the United States Constitution.
1.3
P. T. Barnum and the Press Agentry Era
Modern public relations
also traces less illustrious beginnings to P. T. Barnum, of circus fame. Barnum
pioneered many publicity and press agentry tactics to generate attention for
his attractions. He is credited with coining the phrase, 'There's no such thing
as bad publicity,' and was even known to write letters to the editor under
assumed names — manufacturing controversy to keep a story alive.
Barnum's approach,
however, was ethically questionable. His infamous statement 'The public be
fooled' reflects a model of communications built on deception rather than
truth. Droves of press agents followed in Barnum's tradition, seeking free
media coverage for clients ranging from Hollywood figures and politicians to
private commercial interests such as railroads.
2. The Four
Models of Public Relations
The scholarly framework
for understanding the evolution of public relations practice was systematically
articulated by James Grunig and Todd Hunt (1984), who identified four distinct
models — two based on one-way information dissemination and two based on
two-way research-driven communication.
|
Model |
Direction |
Core
Characteristic |
|
Press
Agentry |
One-Way |
Publicity-focused;
persuasion through media with little regard for truth. |
|
Public
Information |
One-Way |
Factual,
journalistic-style dissemination; emphasis on truthful reporting. |
|
Two-Way
Asymmetrical |
Two-Way |
Research-driven
persuasion; imbalanced in favour of the organisation. |
|
Two-Way
Symmetrical |
Two-Way |
Research-driven
mutual understanding; collaborative and balanced. |
2.1
Press Agentry Model
The press agentry model —
associated with the era of P. T. Barnum and the wave of press agents who
followed — is characterised by one-way communication focused on generating
publicity with little regard for the truthfulness of the content distributed.
This approach relied on technical skill in crafting attention-grabbing messages
and maintaining media presence.
Modern examples of press
agentry include entertainment publicity for new film releases, product launches
for energy drinks, and promotional campaigns for technological gadgets. In this
model, publicity and press agentry are essentially synonymous — both aimed at
generating media attention regardless of accuracy.
2.2
Public Information Model
The public information
model was pioneered by Ivy Ledbetter Lee, a former journalist who
revolutionised public relations practice with a radical idea for his time:
telling the truth. Lee opened the third public relations agency in the United
States in 1904, representing major clients including the Pennsylvania Railroad,
the Rockefeller family, and the Anthracite Coal Roads and Mine Company.
In 1906, Lee issued the
first formal code of ethics in public relations, grounded in his declaration
that "the public be informed" — a direct rebuke of railroad tycoon
Cornelius Vanderbilt's infamous statement, "The public be damned."
Lee's public information approach introduced the concept of the PR counsellor —
a specialist who advises management rather than simply executing press agentry
tactics.
This model remains
relevant today in:
•
Government reporting and public sector communication
•
Quarterly earnings statements and investor
communications
•
Annual reports and informational publications
2.3
Two-Way Asymmetrical Model
Pioneered between 1920 and
1950 by Edward Bernays, the two-way asymmetrical model introduced the use of
social scientific research — particularly behavioural psychology — into public
relations practice. Organisations survey and poll public opinion, and then
incorporate these findings into their communications to craft messages that are
more persuasive and resonant.
|
KEY |
This
model is called asymmetrical because it is imbalanced in favour of the
communicator. The organisation changes its messaging but not its policies or
behaviour — research is a tool of persuasion, not mutual adaptation. |
Example: A politician
running for re-election uses polling data to learn that tax cuts are a
high-priority issue for voters, then features tax cut messaging prominently in
campaign speeches — without necessarily committing to policy change.
2.4
Two-Way Symmetrical Model
The two-way symmetrical
model, also pioneered by Bernays and developed by public relations scholars and
practitioners between approximately 1960 and 1980, represents the most advanced
and ethically sophisticated approach to public relations. Like the asymmetrical
model, it employs research on public opinion — but with a fundamentally
different intent.
Rather than using research
to craft more persuasive one-sided messages, the symmetrical model uses it to
build genuine mutual understanding between organisations and their publics.
Importantly, organisations operating under this model are open to changing
their own internal policies and practices based on what they learn from their
stakeholders.
|
KEY |
The
symmetrical model is a collaborative, moving equilibrium — not perfectly
balanced, but one in which both sides have genuine opportunity for input and
the power to influence outcomes. |
3. The Mixed
Motives Approach
In contemporary public
relations practice, the four models described above are rarely deployed in
isolation. Practitioners typically draw on multiple models simultaneously,
mixing tactics across a single campaign depending on the audience, medium, and
communication objective.
The mixed motives approach
acknowledges a fundamental reality of modern public relations: professionals
are motivated both by the interests of their employer or client and by a
genuine desire to serve the publics they communicate with. This dual motivation
shapes how messages are crafted, how research is used, and how organisations
respond to feedback from their stakeholders.
The models are therefore
best understood as theoretical constructs — frameworks for analysis and
planning — rather than rigid operational protocols. In real-world
implementation, they combine and interact based on the contingencies of each
unique public relations situation.
4.
Sub-Functions of Public Relations
Public relations
encompasses a wide array of specialised sub-functions, often structured as
independent units within an organisation. These may report to the public
relations department directly, or to other organisational functions such as
Legal, Marketing, or Human Resources. The two primary categories are Corporate
(in-house) and Agency PR.
4.1
Corporate PR Sub-Functions
Corporate, or in-house,
public relations functions to create and maintain relationships between an
organisation and its various publics. The specific sub-functions present in any
given organisation depend on its size, type, degree of government regulation,
and competitive environment.
Issues Management
Arguably the most
strategically important sub-function, issues management is a forward-thinking,
problem-solving discipline responsible for identifying emerging trends,
industry changes, and potential threats before they develop into crises. It
requires deep knowledge of research methods, environmental monitoring, the
organisation's industry and business model, and management strategy.
Media Relations
Media relations is the
most externally visible PR sub-function, focused on managing direct engagement
with journalists and news media. It is largely a technical function centred on
producing high-quality outputs such as news releases, press kits, podcasts,
brochures, video news releases, photographs, websites, direct mail pieces, and
social media content.
Community Relations
The community relations
sub-function is responsible for building and sustaining relationships with the
communities in which an organisation operates — particularly local residential
and geographic communities surrounding physical facilities. This sub-function
often incorporates philanthropy and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
reporting, the latter of which is a compliance requirement under the
Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.
Financial and Investor Relations
Financial and investor
relations involves writing annual reports, quarterly earnings statements, and
communicating with investors and market analysts. This sub-function typically
requires expertise in both public relations and financial reporting, and is a
critical interface between the organisation and the capital markets.
Marketing Communications
Also known as integrated
marketing communications (IMC), this sub-function focuses on consumer-facing
publicity and product promotion. It employs public relations strategies —
primarily through a press agentry model — to increase product awareness and persuade
consumers to purchase.
Government Relations
Government relations
manages an organisation's relationships with regulatory agencies and elected
and appointed officials. It handles the organisation's response to legislative
and regulatory developments and ensures compliance with relevant government requirements.
Internal Relations
Internal relations focuses
on communication with intra-organisational publics — executives, management,
administrative staff, and labour. Its primary goal is maintaining an effective,
well-informed, and satisfied workforce.
4.2
Agency PR Sub-Functions
Public relations agencies
offer specialised expertise to client organisations across a range of practice
areas. In addition to general media relations, agencies commonly offer the
following specialised sub-functions:
Crisis Management
Crisis management agencies
specialise in both planning for and reacting to emergency situations. They
develop quick-response protocols and provide fast, accurate information to
media during crises, helping organisations manage reputational risk under pressure.
Lobbying
External lobbying firms
supplement an organisation's government relations function by maintaining
relationships with legislators, press secretaries, and other government
officials. Lobbyists typically provide educational documents, policy analysis,
and research on behalf of their clients.
Member Relations
Member relations is
responsible for maintaining strong relationships with an organisation's
membership base — alumni, donors, activist group members, or any constituency
united by a common affiliation.
Development and Fund-Raising
This sub-function often
overlaps with member relations and focuses on building financial support
through donations, sponsorships, or government grants, particularly in
non-profit and educational institutions.
Polling and Research
Due to the volume and
importance of research in strategic public relations, specialised research
firms exist to conduct polling and opinion research full time. Very large
organisations may maintain in-house research departments; others engage
research agencies on a contract or retainer basis.
Sports, Travel and Entertainment
Specialised public
relations sub-functions exist for the sports, travel, and entertainment
industries. Given the scale and public visibility of these sectors, they often
require dedicated PR expertise and tailored communication strategies.
Advertising
Although advertising is a
separate profession from public relations, it is frequently employed as a
component of integrated public relations campaigns, particularly in marketing
communications contexts.
5. Management
Functions and Strategic Roles
Public relations provides
the greatest value to an organisation when it is deployed strategically. In an
effective organisation, all major functions — including Research and
Development, Legal, Human Resources, Finance, Marketing, and Operations — are
linked by a common set of strategies tied to an overarching vision and
underlying organisational values.
Public relations' unique
contribution within this framework is to develop and maintain relationships
with all key publics and stakeholders through effective communication. Many
business failures are ultimately attributable to the confusion caused by poor
communication — both internal and external.
5.1
The Communication Technician
Communication technicians
spend the majority of their professional time writing, producing, and placing
communication messages. They are typically creative professionals with strong
technical skills in language, imagery, and media production. While their
contribution to executing public relations tactics is vital, technicians rarely
participate in strategic decision-making. They are brought in to execute
deliverables once strategy has been determined by others.
5.2
The Communication Manager
The communication manager
operates at the strategic level of the organisation. Unlike the technician, the
manager is involved in research design, measurement and evaluation, and the
analysis of data that informs relationship management with key publics. Strategic
communication management encompasses:
•
Monitoring the organisation's external environment for
emerging issues
•
Scanning for trends and threats that could impact the
organisation
•
Helping the organisation adapt its policies and
practices to stakeholder needs
•
Linking communication strategy to overall
organisational vision and goals
|
RESEARCH INSIGHT |
A
landmark study on excellence in public relations (Grunig, 1992) found that
one of the strongest predictors of PR excellence was whether the top public
relations executive occupied a management role rather than a technician role.
Those in management roles were significantly more likely to have a positive
strategic impact on the organisation's communications practice. |
In order for corporate
communication to function strategically, the executive in charge must have a
seat at the senior decision-making table. Without this, public relations
remains a tactical function rather than a strategic asset.
6. Key
Takeaways
This report has traced the
historical and theoretical development of public relations from its
revolutionary American origins to its modern strategic management function. The
following key points summarise the essential learning:
•
The field evolved through four distinct models
identified by Grunig and Hunt: press agentry, public information, two-way
asymmetrical, and two-way symmetrical.
•
The one-way models (press agentry and public
information) are based on the technical dissemination of information, without
the use of social scientific research.
•
The two-way models (asymmetrical and symmetrical)
introduce research as a core management tool, transforming public relations
into a strategic discipline.
•
In practice, public relations professionals typically
employ a mixed-motives approach, combining models to serve both organisational
and public interests.
•
Corporate PR sub-functions include issues management,
media relations, community relations, financial and investor relations,
marketing communications, government relations, and internal relations.
•
Agency PR offers specialised services in crisis
management, lobbying, member relations, fund-raising, polling and research, and
industry-specific communications.
•
The greatest value from public relations is achieved
when the top communicator occupies a strategic management role — not merely a
technical execution role.
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