Rhetoric
The word rhetoric comes from the
Greek word rhetor meaning a public speaker. To Aristotle rhetoric are of
“discovering and applying all the possible means of persuasion on any
subjects.”
In change of time it was extended
from speech to writing as well. According
to Locke- rhetoric was “the art of speaking with appropriateness, elegance,
and force.”
Smith rightly regards rhetoric as the art of clear and effective
use of language “written or spoken as a vehicle (medium) for the communication
of ideas.”
Function of Rhetoric
It cannot be denied that the
study of rhetoric is helpful to students and teachers, orators and authors,
public and publicists, as it enables them to express their thoughts and ideas
neatly, elegantly and effectively. Therefore is to employ such means whereby
the effect of one’s words on another’s mind can be left striking and lasting.
Figures
Figures are set of words that
help us to make our expression impressive and beautiful. They are a kind of
device which decorates our expressions.
Figures of speech
The word figure came from Latin figuara
meaning- “the shape of an object”, from which developed its secondary sense-
“something remarkable.”
Classification
of figures of speech
We group all the figures into
seven following classes-
- Figures based on Similarity. (Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Parable, Fable etc. belongs to this group)
- Figures based on Difference. (Antithesis, Epigram, Paradox, Oxymoron, Climax, Bathos or Anticlimax etc. belongs to this group)
- Figures based on Association. (Metonymy, Synecdoche, Hypallage or Transferred Epithet, Allusion etc. belongs to this group)
- Figures based on Imagination. (Personification, Personal Metaphor, Apostrophe, Pathetic Fallacy, Vision or Prosopoeia, Hyperbole or Exaggeration etc. belongs to this group)
- Figures based on Indirectness. (Innuendo, Irony, Sarcasm, Periphrasis or Circumlocution, Euphemism, Meiosis, Litotes etc. belongs to this group)
- Figures based on Sound. (Alliteration, Onomatopoeia, Pun or Paronomasia etc. belongs to this group)
- Figures based on Construction. (Interrogation, Exclamation, Hyperbaton, Prolepsis, Chiasmus, Hendiadys, Zeugma, Syllepsis, Tautology, Pleonasm, Ellipsis, Asyndeton, Polysyndeton, Anaphora, Epistrophe, Epanastrophe, Epanadiplosis, Epanodos, Epanalepsis, Epanorthosis, Palilogy, Catachresis, Anacoluthon, Aposiopesis, Synesis, Paraleipsis, Ornamental Epithet, Enallage etc belongs to this group)
Figures
based on Similarity
Simile
Simile is “the formal and
explicit statement of likeness or similar relationship observed in different
objects and actions”
Features of simile are- i) One thing is likened to another. ii) The
things are different in nature. iii) The likeness between them is clearly
expressed with a word of comparison such as- like, so, such, as etc.
Examples:
a) I wandered lonely as
a cloud.
b) When the evening is spread out
against the sky
Like a patient etherized upon a
table.
c) Her locks were yellow as
gold.
d) Thy soul was like
a star that dwelt apart.
e) The Holy time is quiet as
a Nun.
Similes are of four kinds-
a) Regular simile: There is only one set of comparison in regular
similes such as-
- She bid me take Love easy, as the leaves grow on the tree
- And this gray spirit yearning in desire
To follow
knowledge, like sinking star.
b) Common Similes: Which are those we unconsciously use in our
everyday speech, such as- as dry as a bone, as light as a feather, as clear as
crystal etc.
c) Epic Similes: Which are those in which objects are described
at length and they frequently go beyond the point of comparison and present as
a complete poetic picture of some scene or incident suggested by the
comparison. As such similes are common in Homer, they are also known as Homeric
Similes. Such as-
For very young
he seem’d, tenderly rear’d,
Like
some young cypress, tall and dark, and straight,
Which in a
queen’s secluded garden throws
Its light dark
shadow on the moonlight turf,
By midnight to
bubbling fountain’s sound-
So slender
Sohrab seem’d softly rear’d.
d) Sustained Similes: Which are those in which two or more
similar follow in order to illustrate the same idea.
Such as-
My heart is like
a singing bird
Whose nest is
in a watered shoot,
My heart is like
an apple tree
Whose boughs
are bent with thickest fruit,
My heart is like
a rainbow shell
That paddles in
a halcyon sea.
Simile and Comparison are not same
In comparison the objects
compared may be of the same type or different (as in- Afghanistan
is as hilly as Switzerland
Metaphor
A figure in which a comparison
between two different things is implied but not clearly stated. A metaphor may
take the form of a noun, a verb, or an adjective.
Main features of metaphor- i) One thing is compared to a different
thing. ii) The other thing may be clearly present, masked or totally absent.
iii) The comparison is implied, not clearly pointed out.
Examples:
- He has a stony heart.
- The ship ploughs the sea.
- His rash policy let loose the hounds of war.
- The revenge is a kind of wild justice.
- I drank delight of battle with my peers.
- A dead silence prevailed there.
- He missed a golden opportunity.
- His lame excuse will move none.
Allegory
An allegory is a detailed
description of one thing under the image of another. It always has a
instructive aim. The characters in an allegory often represent abstract
concepts.
Spenser’s “Faerie Queene” is a
good example of Allegorical story.
Parable
A parable is a short narrative
which consists of implicit and detailed analogy (analogy means- comparing one thing with another thing that has
similar features in order to explain it) or we can say that parable is a kind
of short story that teaches moral or spiritual lessons, especially one of those
told by Jesus as recorded in the Bible.
Fable
Moral stories dealing with animal
world to present human natures, characteristics, behavior called fable.
Figures
Based on Difference
Antithesis
Antithesis is a figure in which
thoughts or words are balanced in contrast or we can say antithesis is a
contrast or opposition in the meaning of closest words or sentences that is
emphasized by a similar feature.
The chief characteristics of an antithesis are given below:
i)
One word or idea is set against and contrasted with
another.
ii)
Such arrangement helps one to balance the other.
iii)
The inclusion of the opposite word or idea in the later
part facilitates the emphasis of the former.
Function of Antithesis:
a) It
makes an idea more effective and forceful and its meaning clearer by the
inclusion of its opposite.
b) It
enables us to see an idea and its opposite together.
c) The
presence of contrasted words or ideas helps to emphasize the intended idea.
d) The
mode of expression of an idea of the former part corresponding with that of a
counter-idea of the later part helps them to balance each other.
Examples:
- Art is long, life is short.
- Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven.
- Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice.
- United we stand, divided we fall.
- The scheme was great, but its execution was poor.
Epigram
Prof Bain defines- the epigram is
an apparent contradiction in language which, by causing a temporary shock,
rouses our attention to some important meaning underneath. Epigram is mainly
applied to short poems. Often an epigram ends with a surprising or witty turn
of thought. Its a species of light verse which was much cultivated in England
The chief characteristics of an epigram are given below:
i)
There is a contradiction.
ii)
The contradiction may be raised by words formally
opposing each other or by such giving out an opposing sense.
iii)
The contradiction is not real but apparent.
iv)
It often gives us a shock and appears at first to be
absurd.
v)
It draws our attention to an inner meaning or some
striking truth.
vi)
Its expression is invariable brief, witty and pointed
Examples:
- Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.
- I am content, and I don’t like my situation.
- He makes no friend who never made a foe.
- Cowards die many times before their death.
- The paths of glory lead but to the grave.
Epigram and Antithesis:
Though are frequently
antithetical in form, there is a distinction between an epigram and an
antithesis-
- The contradiction in antithesis is real, where in epigram it is perceptible.
- An epigram has always an element of apparent absurdity which is wholly lacking in antithesis.
- For its effect an epigram depends on wit, brevity and polish, and an antithesis on contrast between ideas.
- An epigram generally consists of one part and one complex idea only, whereas in antithesis the sentence is usually divided into two parts and two separate ideas.
- An epigram lays stress an a brief and pointed saying but an antithesis on a balanced structure.
- In antithesis both ideas are made clearer by being contrasted, whereas in epigram opposite ideas suggest a new truth under the guise of self-contradiction.
Paradox
According to Martin, “A paradox
is an apparent contradiction. At first reading it may seem absurd or
impossible, but on examination it is found to express in a memorable way a
truth.”
There is hardly any difference
between an epigram and a paradox. Some believes that it is an extreme form of
epigram.
The chief characteristics of an epigram are given below:
i)
It contains a contradiction.
ii)
It seems absurd at the first reading.
iii)
It conflicts with received opinion
iv)
It provokes the reader to consider the statement afresh
and makes him realize that it contains a basis of truth or some valid meaning.
Examples:
- The world will be saved by failure.
- There is no one so poor as a wealthy miser.
- The quarrels of lovers are the renewal of love.
- The golden rule is that there are no golden rules.
- Silence is sometimes more eloquent than words.
Epigram and Paradox:
- In epigram we find underneath the contradiction a new truth or some important meaning which may not run counter to the generally accepted opinion, but in paradox there may be or may not be any truth.
- In epigram the expression is compact and witty whereas in paradox it is more spread.
- In epigram there are usually terms which formally oppose each other; this may not be in paradox.
Oxymoron
It is a figure in which
contradictory words are placed side by side for raising a striking effect. It
is an extreme form of epigram.
The chief characteristics of an oxymoron are given below:
i)
T raise a sense of contradiction two sharply opposing
terms are used in the same sentence.
ii)
The contradictory words are set side by side.
iii)
Such placing suggests a striking meaning and emphasizes
the sense.
Examples:
- She was regularly irregular in her presence in the college.
- They have a plentiful lack of wit.
- And all its aching joys are now no more.
- Do those good mischiefs which may make this island thine for ever.
- It was a pleasing fear.
Climax
It is a figure in which a series
of words, phrases or ideas is arranged in an rising order of importance or
emphasis.
The chief characteristics of an oxymoron are given below:
i)
It consists of a series of ideas, words or phrases.
ii)
The least significant of them comes first and the most
significant one comes last.
iii)
There is an order or gradation in the arrangement of
ideas which proceeds from the lower to the higher.
Examples:
1.
I came, I saw, I conquered.
2.
A heart t resolve, a head t contrive, and a hand to
execute.
3.
Vice is a monster that we first endure, then pity, and
then embrace.
4.
To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.
5.
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, some
few to be chewed and digested.
Anticlimax or Bathos
It is a figure which consists in
a sudden fall from the lofty to the mean, from the elevated to the commonplace,
which produces a comical effect. It is the opposite of climax signify a fall
from high to the ground.
The chief characteristics of an oxymoron are given below:
i)
There is a series of words, phrases or ideas.
ii)
They are arranged in a downward order of importance,
the most impressive comes first and the least impressive comes last.
iii)
After the maintenance of seriousness for sometime there
is a sudden fall at the end.
iv)
The term provokes laughter.
Examples:
1.
So passed the strong heroic soul away.
And when they
buried him the little port
Had seldom seen a costlier funeral.
2.
Oh! She was perfect past all parallel
In virtues
nothing earthly could surpass her,
Save thine ‘incomparable oil, Macassar.
3.
If parts allure thee, think how Bacon shined
The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind.
4.
True Jedwood justice was dealt out to him. First came
the execution, then
The investigation and last of
all accusation.
5.
Poets and pigs are not appreciated until they are dead!
Figures Based
on Association
Metonymy
It means the act of referring to
something by the name of something else that is closely connected with it. To
say elaborately it is a figure in which the name of one thing is substituted
for that of another with which it is loosely associated. In it the name of one
thing is used for another. Such as- White House stands for the USA
The chief characteristics of a metonymy are given below:
i)
One object is named but another object is meant.
ii)
There exists a certain relation between them.
iii)
This relation is not intimate but loose.
iv)
It is possible to separate both objects physically.
Examples:
1.
All Arabia breathes
from yonder box.
2.
Shakespeare was England
3.
All the world praises him.
4.
The youth was the sigh of her secret soul.
5.
The principles of liberty were the scoff of every
grinning courtier.
Synecdoche
The main purpose of synecdoche is
to present a part of something to signify the whole, or the whole is used to
signify a part. It is mainly a figure in which the name of one thing is
substituted for that of another with which it is intimately associated.
The chief characteristics of a synecdoche are given below:
i)
One thing is named but another thing, associated with
it, is meant.
ii)
The association or relation between the two things- the
one named and the other meant- is quite close, so close indeed that in most
cases the one thing cannot be separated from the other without causing some
injury to it.
Examples:
1.
He engaged the best brains to find out a solution.
2.
A fleet of fifty sail went forward to meet the
challenge.
3.
It is difficult for a poor man to feed many mouths.
4.
He is an inhabitant of the New World .
5.
All the beauty and the chivalry assembled there
Hypallage or transferred Epithet
It is a figure in which a description (Epithet) is transferred
from the object to which it properly belongs to another with which it is mentally associated.
The chief characteristics of a Hypallage/Epithet are given below:
i)
An epithet or a descriptive term is shifted.
ii)
The epithet properly belongs to an object, but is
shifted to another object to which , therefore, it cannot really belong.
iii)
Such shifting takes place because one is closely
associated with the other in the mind of the speaker or the writer.
iv)
The epithet
in most cases is transferred from a person to a thing.
Examples:
1.
He lay all night on a sleepless pillow.
2.
I spent an anxious morning.
3.
He spent a happy day.
4.
Where lay the mighty bones of ancient men.
5.
In holy anger and pious grief
He solemnly
cursed that rascally thief.
Allusion
In a literary text it is a
reference, without explicit identification to a person, place, or event or to
another literary work or passage.
For example we can quote:
Now we clap
Our Hands, and
cry “Eureka
The word “Eureka
Figures
based on Imagination
Personification
It is a figure in which abstract ideas are provided with
personality, and both inanimate objects and ideas are gifted with the
characteristics of living beings.
The chief characteristics of a Personification are given below:
i)
Only inanimate objects (of nature) and abstract ideas
are taken into consideration.
ii)
The abstract idea is gifted with the personality of a
living being.
iii)
Both inanimate object and the abstract idea provided
with the characteristics of living being.
Examples:
1.
And Melancholy marked him for her own.
2.
Death lays his icy hand on kings.
3.
Where darkness spreads his jealous wings
4.
Athens was the eye of Greece
5.
Venice the eldest child
of Liberty
Personal Metaphor
It is a figure in which inanimate
objects are invested with the
personality of a living being. It is closely connected with the personification
and can be considered as a kind of Personification. But the difference is that
in it abstract idea is not taken into consideration.
Examples:
1.
The fearful roar of the angry sea.
2.
I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.
3.
Fortune with a smiling face.
Pathetic Fallacy
It is a figure in which Nature or
inanimate objects are credited with human feelings. Like Personal Metaphor it
is another form of personification. It is concerned with Nature or inanimate
objects, and not with abstract idea. Pathetic Fallacy are often shown to
participate in some human concern either by offering sympathy or antipathy to
man.
Examples:
1.
The river wept for the sorrow of the lady.
2.
Nature sighed for the woes of earth.
3.
And instantly the whole sky burned with fury against
them.
Apostrophe
It is a figure in which a short
impassioned address is made to a person, dead or absent, or to an inanimate
object, or to an abstract idea thinking as if each is present and capable of
understanding.
The chief characteristics of a Apostrophe are given below:
i)
It involves a person, dead or absent, an inanimate
object, or an abstract idea.
ii)
An address is made to any one of them, and it is short
and impassioned.
iii)
Under the pressure of emotion the speaker takes them as
living beings present before them, and capable of understanding him.
iv)
The address reveals not only intense emotion but also
elevated thought and language.
Examples:
1.
Frailty, thy name is woman!
2.
Milton
3.
England
Vision
It is a figure which consists in
“seeing what is not actually seen.” In this figure a vivid picture is presented
and this is done with the help of imagination.
Examples:
1.
Pride in their port, defiance in their eye,
I see the lords
of human kind pass by.
2.
I see before me the gladiator lie.
3.
Is this a dagger which I see before me, the handle
towards my hand?
Hyperbole
It is a figure in which a
deliberate overstatement is made for emphasis. It is generally used either for
serious or comic effect. In Hyperbole a thing or a person is not presented in
the normal state and things are magnified beyond their natural bounds.
Examples:
1.
Here is the smell of blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.
2.
I thought ten thousand swords must have leapt from
their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult.
3.
My vegetable love grow
Vaster than
empires............
Figures
Based on Indirectness
Innuendo
It is a figure in which something
unpleasant, harsh or damaging is artfully hinted instead of being plainly
stated.
The chief characteristics of a Innuendo are given below:
i)
A damaging remark is intended against a person or
thing.
ii)
It is not plainly stated but only suggested in an
oblique way.
iii)
A hostile feeling prompts the speaker or writer to make
such hurting remarks.
iv)
The way of the expression shows that the damage is
indirectly done.
Examples:
1.
I do not consult physicians for I hope to die without
them.
2.
The picture is splendid as the artist is an
octogenarian (an aged person).
3.
The frame of the picture is excellent indeed.
4.
The author’s book will live at least a year.
Irony
It is a figure in which the very
opposite of what is stated is intended.
The chief characteristics of a Innuendo are given below:
i)
Something is said but its contrary is meant.
ii)
Apparently it implies praise but really it wants to
hurt.
iii)
This hurting is done in an indirect way and can be
known from the very sneering mode of utterance of the words.
Examples:
1.
And Brutus is an honorable man.
2.
No doubt you are the people, and wisdom will die with
you.
3.
With his usual punctuality the entered into the class
after roll-call.
4.
The operation was successful though the patient died.
5.
The reporter overwhelmed me by his beautiful ignorance.
Sarcasm
It is a figure in which a direct
statement is made in such a way as to excite contempt, ridicule or scorn. The characteristics of Sarcasm are-
- In it a direct attack is made against a person; its purpose is to inflict pain.
- It is always bitter, and excites contempt, ridicule, or scorn.
- There is no cleavage between what is stated and what is intended.
Examples:
1.
His bark is worse than his bite.
2.
Certainly God did not make man and leave it to
Aristotle to make him rational.
3.
The doctor’s profession is the least noble of any. A
stock-broker is more saintly than a doctor.
Figures
based on Sound
Alliteration
It is a figure in which the same
sound, letter or syllable is repeated in a sequence of nearby words. Alliteration
brings a sensuous pleasure to the ear. Through repetitions of the same sound or
letter it also makes a line emphatic.
Examples:
1.
An Austrian army awfully arrayed.
2.
Alone, alone, all, all alone,
Alone on a
wide, wide sea!
3.
A fair field full of folk.
Pun of Paronomasia
This is a figure which ‘rests on
a duplicity of sense under unity of sound.’ Pun are very often intended
humorously but not always. This figure consists in the use of that same sound
to convey different meanings. The
characteristics of Pun are-
- One word is used in two different senses.
- Two words having the same sound but identical or dissimilar spellings are used in two different senses.
- The figure is used generally to excite laughter.
Examples:
1.
An ambassador is an honest man who lies (reside/falsehood) abroad for the good of his country.
2.
For a foolish sportsman it is easier to follow (to
chase) a hound than to follow (understand) an argument.
3.
Is life worth living?- It depends on the liver (human
organ/living person).
4.
Though he is a scientist his knowledge on sound (a
branch of study) is not sound (deep).
Edited By-
Akther Mahmud
B.A. Honors (English)
Cell: 01813727616
Email: mahmud_am85@yahoo.com
This discussion on Rhetoric along with other necessary
study notes will be available on this site-
www.tdgrp.blogspot.com
